Section A: 1.2 Key moments in the development of philosophy



Though the emergence of philosophy in ancient Greece is undoubtedly a ‘key moment’, when you’re asked about key moments in the development of philosophy you’re expected to answer on; the emergence of a Christian philosophy, the Age of Enlightenment, and Existentialism.



Past Exam Question

1.2 Identify two key moments in the development of philosophy and outline the way that philosophical thinking changed at each of these moments.


Christian philosophy

The fusion of Greek philosophy and Christian theology occurs after the Romanisation of Christianity in the 4th and 5th centuries. The medieval worldview is essentially a synthesis of these two schools of thought. In this era there are two sources of knowledge – often described as the two great books; (i) the book of God’s word: The Bible, and (ii) the book of God’s work: the created universe. Both scripture and the world around us can provide us with knowledge of God’s intention for us – it is necessary to study both in order to fully understand our place in the world. This means that Christian philosophers believed it was their duty to examine the natural world in order to fully understand God and the glories of his creation – there was no perceived conflict between religion and science at this time.



Key figures in this era include St Augustine (4th century), St Anselm (11th century) and St Thomas Aquinas (13th century). In relation to the question of the goal and purpose of life Aquinas said ‘properly human action is action that pursues goals’ and further added that the ultimate goal is God. All other human goals – wealth, power, pleasure – are mere diversions that distract us from our true nature and purpose. Aquinas clearly identifies our purpose as a right relationship with God – whose existence Aquinas believed he could prove (3.3).

The Enlightenment


Following years of fixed ideas (Greek philosophy, Christian theology) a spate of new ideas revolutionised the landscape of thought in the 15th – 17th centuries. Cultural developments like the Renaissance, Reformation and Scientific Revolution represented a rejection of tradition and authority. This led to the emergence of a secular worldview (disappearance of God, rise of humanism), the emergence of a human rights culture (movement away from Church teaching, but also changes in Church thinking relating to moral issues), and the rise of individualism (the ‘turn to the subject’). Key figures at this time include Galileo, Descartes, and Newton.



A characteristic of Enlightenment thinking is the firm belief in the human ability to fully understand the world through the application of reason. Rene Descartes believed he could arrive at a point of absolute certainty through the use of reason, and for many people his ‘Cogito’ argument succeeds in achieving this. In order to arrive at certainty Descartes believed it was necessary to subject everything to methodical doubt – this involved doubting everything it was possible to doubt (e.g. our senses may deceive us, it’s possible that I am dreaming, etc.) The one thing Descartes found it was impossible to doubt is ‘doubt’ itself – think about it – when you doubt ‘doubt’ you affirm it. If you’re doubting, then you’re thinking, if you are thinking, then you must exist – Cogito Ergo Sum – ‘I think, therefore I am’.

Impact: The result of subjecting everything to this kind of radical scepticism is that it’s harder to search for meaning and values, knowing that any answers we encounter are potential victims of methodical doubt. Descartes desired certainty, but his ideas undermine our own belief in our ability to ascertain anything. Descartes’ scepticism about the nature of reality and the reliability of individual testimony haunts modern philosophy. 

Existentialism


After the mosaics of meaning had been shattered – a new philosophical approach emerged. Existentialism focuses on questions about the individual, their place in the world, and the formation of identity. It is a response to the Age of Enlightenment – countering overexaggerated claims to knowledge founded on reason and logic, and the rejection of emotion. 



A key figure in this era was Friedrich Nietzsche whose philosophy emerged from radical scepticism. Nietzsche believed there was no absolute moral or scientific truth. The concept of truth is something society needs to control its people and function effectively. As Christianity was the main purveyor of ‘truth’ in his time, Nietzsche attacked the institution of the Church in a number of provocative statements – he claimed the Church promoted a ‘slave morality’ which made virtues of submissive traits such as weakness and obedience, whilst condemning those that would set us free. Nietzsche believed that human behaviour should be measured in terms of greatness and excellence; he called this a ‘will to power’.

Nietzsche’s most famous statement is perhaps his assertion that ‘God is dead’. The scientific progress of recent centuries, coupled with the emergence of beliefs such as humanism, atheism, and the rise of individualism – had resulted in the death of God. Nietzsche didn’t think this was a cause of celebration. Religious beliefs, though false, help make portions of our lives bearable – Nietzsche feared the gap left by religion would be filled by nihilism – the belief that life is meaningless.

Impact: The philosophy of Nietzsche helped lay the foundations of the post-modern worldview. It is a world characterized by the rejection of scientific rationalism and the deepening of individualism. Truth is provisional and contextual, pluralism and relativism are absolute. The search for meaning is groundless – post-modernity posits a self-made world of absolute freedom, where all choices are equally valid, but none are of any value.




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