Section D: 3.2 Moral theories (Hedonism, Utilitarianism, Deontology)



In an effort to avoid moral conflict a number of moral theories have been developed over the centuries. The three listed above are all linked to the age of Enlightenment and all three seek to devise a decision-making framework that can be applied in all situations. However, each of these theories have drawn criticism – this is evident in the conflict between the approaches suggested by Hedonism, Utilitarianism and Deontology.


Past Exam Question


Examine the approach taken to making moral decisions in two of the following moral philosophies / theories: Deontological Ethics, Hedonism, Natural Law, Right Relationship, Teleological Ethics, Utilitarianism, Virtue Ethics


Hedonism


 From hedone, the Greek word for pleasure. Psychological hedonism claims that only pleasure or pain motivates us. Ethical hedonism claims that only pleasure has moral worth or value, and only pain is immoral. In An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, 18th century English philosopher Jeremy Bentham makes an argument for both:

‘Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do, as well as to determine what we shall do… They govern us in all we do, in all we say, in all we think.’

A hedonist strives to maximise pleasure and minimise pain. Ethical hedonism is the idea that people have the right to do everything in their power to achieve the greatest amount of pleasure possible to them. It is the belief that every person’s pleasure should far outweigh their pain.



Utilitarianism

Actions should be judged right or wrong to the extent that they increase or decrease human well-being or ‘utility’. Utility consists in human pleasure and happiness, and Utilitarianism is sometimes summarized as the promotion of ‘the greatest happiness of the greatest number.’

In contrast to Deontological Ethics, Utilitarianism is a consequentialist theory – right or wrong are judged in terms of their consequences. It states that an action is right if it produces the greatest good for the greatest number. It is the total consequence of an action that determines its rightness or wrongness.

• Animal testing can be justified because of the potential benefit to society
• Practices like torture could also be acceptable because of the potential outcome (acquiring information that protects a large number of people)


English philosopher Philippa Foot used a thought experiment called The Trolley Problem to expose the limits of this approach. In the experiment you are forced to choose between allowing a train to continue down a track with five people working on it (leading to their certain deaths) or diverting the train, by means of pulling a lever, onto another track where only one person is working. Following utilitarian principles you’ll sacrifice one life to save five, but do you have the authority to decide whose life is more valuable?


Deontological Ethics

The word ‘deontological’ comes from the Greek word deon, which means duty or obligation. Deontological Ethics states that there is an objective moral theory, a law, a code of behaviour, that is not changed over time or situation, which sets out how we should act. This way of thinking judges an act, not in terms of its consequences, but in terms of whether it is right or wrong by law. So the law is true in all circumstances.

The 18th century German philosopher Immanuel Kant believed that there are certain practices that are never acceptable – in any circumstances. Lying is one of them, and he outlined this issue using his example of the ‘axe murderer’.


‘If a sinister looking man carrying an axe knocked on your door and asked you where your best friend was, would it be acceptable to tell a lie?’

Kant believed it wouldn’t. ‘Tell the truth’ is what Kant called a categorical imperative – an absolute duty, without exceptions. This means it applies to everyone, in all circumstances. Kant said it would not be acceptable to lie, even if you had the intention of producing a good outcome. It is our moral duty tell the truth at all times. If you tell a lie that by chance leads to the axe murderer finding your friend: that is on your conscience. If you tell the truth, the consequences for your friend, no matter how grisly, should not be on your conscience.

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